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# [Groundschool : A sound acquaintance with the principles of flight]<!-- (https://aeroplaying.uk/G) -->

## [Navigation : Position, time, distance, speed, track, heading, pilotage](https://aeroplaying.uk/G/!/Navigation)

### <Mark>[Questions : A taste of the material that might be included in an exam](https://aeroplaying.uk/G/!/Airlaw/Questions)</Mark>  

- Describe key features of good and safe airmanship.
- List the common causes of fatal accidents for private general aviation pilots in New Zealand.
- State the approximate proportion of aircraft accidents and incidents commonly attributed to human performance errors.
- Define human factors as used in an aviation context.
- Describe the fundamentals of the SHEL Model in relation to the interaction of humans with other humans, hardware, information sources and the environment.
- Explain the role of human factors programmes in promoting aviation safety. Physiology and the Effects of Flight
- State the gases that make up the atmosphere.
- State the percentage of each gas in the atmosphere.
- Describe the variation of pressure as altitude increases.
- Explain how the partial pressure of oxygen changes as altitude increases.
- Describe the anatomy and physiology of the respiratory system.
- Describe the anatomy and physiology of the circulatory system.
- Describe the role of the lungs in oxygen and carbon dioxide transfer.
- Define hypoxia.
- State the partial pressure of oxygen both inside and outside the lungs at sea level.
- Explain the mechanical effect of the partial pressure of oxygen on oxygen transfer in the lungs.
- Explain the causes of hypoxia
- Describe the common symptoms of hypoxia.
- Explain the reasons hypoxia symptoms are difficult to detect.
- Explain the relationship between hypoxic onset and both vision and cognitive performance.
- Describe how hypoxia can be prevented.
- State the factors that affect the likelihood of suffering from hypoxia.
- Describe how hypoxia can be treated.
- Define the concept of 'time of useful consciousness'.
- State the approximate time of useful consciousness at:  a10,000ft;  b14,000ft;  c18,000ft.
- Explain oxygen paradox.
- Define hyperventilation.
- Explain the causes of hyperventilation.
- Describe the symptoms of hyperventilation.
- Describe how hyperventilation can be treated.
- Describe the differences between hyperventilation and hypoxia.
- Define barotrauma.
- Explain the causes of barotrauma.
- Describe the symptoms of barotrauma.
- Describe the effects of barotrauma on the various parts of the body.
- Describe how barotrauma can be prevented.
- Describe how barotrauma can be treated.
- Define decompression sickness.
- Explain the causes of decompression sickness.
- Describe the symptoms of decompression sickness
- Explain how decompression sickness can be prevented.
- Describe how decompression sickness can be treated.
- Explain the dangers of flying after diving.
- Describe the anatomy and physiology of the eye.
- Identify the following eye structure components: lens; cornea; retina; fovea; optic nerve disc; cone cells; rod cells.
- Distinguish between rod and cone cell functions and distribution in the retina.
- Describe the limitations of the eye in terms of:  the ability to discern objects at night;  the ability to discern objects in daylight, including wires and other aircraft; poor lighting; glare; lack of contrast; the blind spot; colour perception; empty field myopia.
- Explain the process of dark adaptation.
- State the normal time for full night vision adaptation.
- Identify precautionary actions to protect night vision adaptation.
- Describe: long sightedness; short sightedness; presbyopia; astigmatism.
- Describe the factors associated with the selection of suitable sunglasses for flying.
- Describe the effects of hypoxia on vision.
- Describe the visual system resting state focus and its effects on object detection.
- Explain effective visual search techniques.
- Explain the see and avoid method of avoiding mid-air collisions.
- Explain the following visual illusions, and describe methods of avoiding and/or coping with: autokinesis; stroboscopic illumination illusion/flicker vertigo; the break-off phenomenon; the black hole phenomenon.
- Describe conditions which can lead to the creation of a false horizon.
- Explain the effect of a false horizon on visual perception.
- Explain relative motion.
- Explain the effect of fog, haze, and/or dust on visual perception.
- Describe the optical characteristics of the windshield.
- Explain the effect of sloping terrain on visual perception.
- Explain the effect of the following factors on visual perception during an approach: steep/shallow approach angles; length, width and texture of the runway; the intensity of the approach lights.
- Describe the anatomy and physiology of the ear.
- Describe the effect of prolonged noise exposure on hearing.
- Describe methods of protecting hearing.
- Explain the effects of age induced hearing loss (presbycusis).
- Explain the effects of pressure changes on the middle ear and eustachian tubes.Sub TopicSyllabus Item
- Explain the effects of colds; hay fever; and/or allergies on the sinuses and eustachian tubes.
- Spatial Orientation
- Define spatial orientation.
- Define disorientation.
- Outline the anatomy and physiology of the motion, orientation and gravitational sensory organs, including: the semi-circular canals; vestibular sac/tubes.
- Explain the interconnection between the visual and kinasthetic senses in maintaining accurate spatial orientation.
- Explain the body’s limitations in maintaining spatial orientation when vision is adversely affected.
- Describe and explain the effects of the following spatial illusions: the leans and sub-threshold stimulation; somatogravic illusion; somatogyral illusion; cross coupled turning (coriolis effect); pressure vertigo.
- Explain the effects of positive and negative accelerations on: the circulatory system; vision; and, consciousness.
- Explain the causes and symptoms of black-out and red-out.
- Explain the causes of motion sickness.
- Describe how motion sickness can be prevented.
- Describe how motion sickness can be treated.
- Explain the causes of flight anxiety.Sub TopicSyllabus Item
- Recognise the signs of flight anxiety in passengers.
- Describe how flight anxiety can be prevented. Flying and Health
- Describe the term fitness to fly.
- Explain the CAANZ system of assessing medical fitness, with regard to: Medical Examiner Grade 1 and Grade 2; means of obtaining medical examinations; frequency of medical examinations; responsibilities of pilots towards medical fitness for flight.
- Identify symptoms and circumstances that would lead you to consult your aviation medical examiner prior to further flight.
- Describe the IMSAFE method of assessing fitness for flight.
- Describe the problems associated with pregnancy and flying.
- Describe the following factors, including their effects on pilot performance and methods by which they may be minimised/managed: arterial disease; blood pressure; diet; exercise; obesity; smoking;  respiratory tract infection/allergies (including colds, sinus, hay fever, influenza, asthma);  food poisoning and gastroenteritis;  neurological factors (including fits/epilepsy, brain injury, fainting, headaches, migraines);  emotional factors (including depression and anxiety).
- Explain the effects of alcohol on pilot performance.
- State the recommended time periods between the consumption of alcohol and flying.Sub TopicSyllabus Item
- Explain the effects of drugs on pilot performance.
- State where information can be obtained about the suitability of over the counter and prescription medication for flying.
- Explain why illegal/recreational drugs are unacceptable for pilots.
- Describe the effect on the body of donating blood.
- State the recommended time period between the donation of blood and flying.
- Describe the symptoms, effects and immediate treatments for the following hazards present in the aviation environment: carbon monoxide; fuel; lubricating oils; hydraulic fluids.
- State the source of carbon monoxide poisoning in general aviation aircraft.
- Describe reliable methods for the detection of carbon monoxide.
- Describe methods of eliminating carbon monoxide from the cockpit.
- Define stress.
- Describe a simple model of stress.
- Define arousal.
- Explain the relationship between stress and arousal.
- Describe the following environmental stressors: heat; cold; noise; vibration; humidity.
- Explain methods of identifying stress.
- Explain the difference between acute and chronic stress.Sub TopicSyllabus Item
- Describe the physiological and psychological effects of stress.
- Describe the factors that improve personal stress tolerance.
- Describe the relationship between stress and fatigue.
- Explain methods of managing stress.
- Describe the stages of sleep.
- Explain how individuals differ in their requirement for sleep.
- Explain the effects of the following alertness management techniques: napping; caffeine consumption; alcohol consumption; taking sedatives; taking stimulants other than caffeine.
- Describe sleep disorders and their effects on pilot performance.
- Define fatigue.
- Explain the causes of fatigue and its effect on pilot performance.
- Describe the symptoms of fatigue.
- Explain the difference between acute and chronic fatigue.
- Describe methods of managing fatigue.
- Identify normal physiological and behavioural changes with age that have a bearing on private pilot performance.
- Describe methods by which age-related changes in memory and speed of information processing can be moderated by older pilots. Aviation Psychology
- Identify the human sensors pilots depend on for information acquisition.
- Describe a basic model of information processing, including the concepts of: attention; sensory threshold; sensitivity. 
- Describe the following types of memory: peripheral/sensory memory; short term/working memory; long term memory; motor/skills memory.
- Describe the limitations and failures of memory.
- Explain the following methods of retaining and retrieving information from memory: chunking; mnemonics; checklists.
- Explain the concept of mental workload.
- Define perception.
- Describe the effect of the following on perception: expectation; experience.
- Describe the formation of mental models.
- Define situational awareness.
- Explain the importance of situational awareness on different phases of flight.
- Describe strategies to maintain and enhance situational awareness.
- Describe hazardous attitudes.
- Describe methods of countering hazardous attitudes.
- Describe the error/poor judgement chain.
- Explain clues or red flags that can assist in identifying the error/poor judgement chain.
- Identify risk assessment techniques.
- Outline the general concepts behind decision making.
- Describe methods of enhancing decision making skills.
- Identify common decision-making models used in aviation training (DECIDE, SADIE etc) and explain their application.
- Identify specific factors that influence the decision making process.
- Explain the setting of personal limitations and decision points.
- Outline the dangers of get-home-itis.
- Identify the factors that affect team performance.
- Describe group decision making.
- Describe ideal leadership characteristics.
- Describe a basic model of communications.
- Describe the barriers to effective communication.
- Identify techniques to reduce communication barriers.
- Explain the following strategies used to reduce communication errors in aviation: read-backs; standard phraseology; standard calls.
- Explain how outside resources, such as ATC, engineers and other pilots can contribute to a pilot’s management of a flight.
- Explain the role of human error in aviation accidents.
- Explain the degree to which human error can be eliminated.
- Describe threats which could potentially affect a safe flight.
- Explain the basic elements and features of the Reason Model.
- Identify the elements in a safety culture.
- List the key reasons for safety reporting in aviation.
- Explain the rationale for mandatory reporting of incidents as required by CAR Part 12.
- Distinguish between normal error, at risk behaviour and high culpabilitySub Topic Syllabus Item behaviour.
- Distinguish between negligent and reckless behaviour.
- Describe the role of punitive sanction. 
- Describe the basic principles of control, display and workspace design.
- Explain the importance of the following in cockpit design: reach; comfort; posture; lighting levels.
- Define biomechanics.
- Define anthropometry.
- Describe applications of biomechanics in the design of a cockpit.
- Explain the relevance of anthropometry in the design of a cockpit.
- Describe the effects of a poorly designed cockpit on pilot performance.
- Explain the importance of eye datum or eye design position.
- Describe the problems associated with windshield design and visibility.
- Explain the importance of the following in control design: size; shape/recognition by touch; location; direction of movement; visibility.
- Explain the importance of the following in the design of instrumentation, displays and alerts: size; position;Sub Topic Syllabus Item layout; visibility; legibility; scale; use of colour; illumination.
- Describe parallax error.
- Describe common errors in display interpretation.
- Describe potential errors in the interpretation of three pointer altimeters.
- Describe potential errors in the interpretation of the artificial horizon.
- Describe the basic requirements of alerts.
- Describe problems associated with the presentation and misinterpretation of alerts.
- Describe how colour coding conventions are used in aviation on instruments and displays.
- Explain the rationale behind consistent and thorough checklist use as opposed to reliance on memory.
- Distinguish between normal and emergency checklists.
- Identify the phases of flight where a checklist plays an important role.
- Describe the reasons for and the possible ramifications of checklist complacency. First Aid and Survival
- Describe the basic principles of first aid.
- Describe the basic principles of Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation.
- Identify basic items carried in a certificated general aviation aircraft first aid kit.
- State the components of a pre-flight passenger briefing by a pilot with respect to aircraft safety features and equipment.
- Explain the basic steps in post-crash survivor management.
- List the priorities of survival in order of importance.
- List additional useful but discretionary safety and survival items that could be carried on a cross-country flight over bush clad and mountainous terrain.
- Explain the process of hypothermia.


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